Kamis, 25 Februari 2016
Selasa, 23 Februari 2016
Morphology for TBI IAIN Tulungagung
MORPHOLOGY
Developed by Jadid Muanas
Morphology is at the conceptual centre of linguistics. This is not because it is the dominant
subdiscipline, but because morphology is the study of word structure, and words are at the interface
between phonology, syntax and semantics. Words have phonological properties, they articulate
together to form phrases and sentences, their form often reflects their syntactic function, and their
parts are often composed of meaningful smaller pieces. In addition, words contract relationships with
each other by virtue of their form; that is, they form paradigms and lexical groupings. For this reason,
morphology is something all linguists have to know about. The centrality of the word brings with it
two important challenges. First, there is the question of what governs morphological form: how is
allomorphy to be described? The second is the question of what governs the syntactic and semantic
function of morphological units, and how these interact with syntax and semantics proper.
There is a less enviable aspect to this centrality. Morphology has been called ‘the Poland of linguistics’
– at the mercy of imperialistically minded neighbours. In the heyday of American structuralism,
morphology and phonology were the principal objects of study. Monographs entitled ‘The Grammar of
L’, for some language L, would frequently turn out to consist of the phoneme system of L and its
morphology. However, the study of morphology in generative linguistics was largely eclipsed by
phonology and syntax in the early days (though it is up to historians of linguistics to say exactly why).
Ultimately, it came to be that when morphology was considered at all, it was regarded as essentially
either a part of phonology or a part of syntax. True, there were a number of important works on
morphology, mainly inflectional morphology, such as Kiefer’s (1973) work on Swedish, Bierwisch’s
(1967) study of German and Warburton's (1973) paper on Greek inflection; but it was not until Halle's
(1973) short programmatic statement that linguistics at large began to appreciate that there was a
vacuum in linguistic theory where morphology should be. This was followed in 1974 by two
particularly influential MIT dissertations, later published as Aronoff (1976) and Siegel (1979),
proposing radically different approaches to the subject.
Siegel's theory of Level Ordering brought with it a new way of looking at the phonology—morphology
interface, which ultimately grew into Kiparsky's (1982a) Lexical Phonology. Siegel argued that those
affixes in English which never affect stress (and which do not trigger other lexical phonological
alternations) such as -ness are attached after stress rules have applied. These are the # boundary
affixes of SPE (Chomsky and Halle 1968), renamed Class II. The + boundary (Class I) affixes are those
which do affect stress, such as -ity, and they are attached before the stress rules. This led to an
interesting prediction about the linear order of affixes: Class I affixes appear nearer the root than
Class II affixes. This generalization is largely true, though it has been regularly pointed out since
Aronoff (1976) that it is not entirely true. Fabb (1988) has argued that even if it is true, the Level
Ordering Hypothesis is not sufficient to explain affix ordering in its entirety, and that alternative
conceptions which do give reasonably broad coverage can also handle the Level Ordering phenomena.
Lexical Phonology is generally associated with Level Ordering (though a number of lexical
phonologists have distanced themselves from it; cf. Booij and Rubach 1987). However, the leadi ideas of the model do not actually require Level Ordering. The main thrust of Kiparsky's theory is to
emphasize the traditional distinction between morphophonemic alternations and automatic
alternations. The morphophonemic alternations are generally mappings from sets of phonemes into
sets of phonemes (Structure Preservation), apply in contexts which are not defined in purely
phonological terms, often have lexical exceptions, can be ‘cancelled’ by native speakers (e.g. in loan
phonology), and generally apply only within words. The automatic alternations are generally
allophonic (non-Structure Preserving), speakers are generally not aware of them, they apply to
monomorphemic forms, and they often apply across words. Kiparsky argued that morphophonemic
alternations are actually triggered by morphological operations of affixation. As an affix is added (or a
cycle of affixation with a level is completed), the battery of lexical phonological rules applies. This
gives rise to various types of cyclic effect, and accounts for a good many of the properties of the two
types of rule.
subdiscipline, but because morphology is the study of word structure, and words are at the interface
between phonology, syntax and semantics. Words have phonological properties, they articulate
together to form phrases and sentences, their form often reflects their syntactic function, and their
parts are often composed of meaningful smaller pieces. In addition, words contract relationships with
each other by virtue of their form; that is, they form paradigms and lexical groupings. For this reason,
morphology is something all linguists have to know about. The centrality of the word brings with it
two important challenges. First, there is the question of what governs morphological form: how is
allomorphy to be described? The second is the question of what governs the syntactic and semantic
function of morphological units, and how these interact with syntax and semantics proper.
There is a less enviable aspect to this centrality. Morphology has been called ‘the Poland of linguistics’
– at the mercy of imperialistically minded neighbours. In the heyday of American structuralism,
morphology and phonology were the principal objects of study. Monographs entitled ‘The Grammar of
L’, for some language L, would frequently turn out to consist of the phoneme system of L and its
morphology. However, the study of morphology in generative linguistics was largely eclipsed by
phonology and syntax in the early days (though it is up to historians of linguistics to say exactly why).
Ultimately, it came to be that when morphology was considered at all, it was regarded as essentially
either a part of phonology or a part of syntax. True, there were a number of important works on
morphology, mainly inflectional morphology, such as Kiefer’s (1973) work on Swedish, Bierwisch’s
(1967) study of German and Warburton's (1973) paper on Greek inflection; but it was not until Halle's
(1973) short programmatic statement that linguistics at large began to appreciate that there was a
vacuum in linguistic theory where morphology should be. This was followed in 1974 by two
particularly influential MIT dissertations, later published as Aronoff (1976) and Siegel (1979),
proposing radically different approaches to the subject.
Siegel's theory of Level Ordering brought with it a new way of looking at the phonology—morphology
interface, which ultimately grew into Kiparsky's (1982a) Lexical Phonology. Siegel argued that those
affixes in English which never affect stress (and which do not trigger other lexical phonological
alternations) such as -ness are attached after stress rules have applied. These are the # boundary
affixes of SPE (Chomsky and Halle 1968), renamed Class II. The + boundary (Class I) affixes are those
which do affect stress, such as -ity, and they are attached before the stress rules. This led to an
interesting prediction about the linear order of affixes: Class I affixes appear nearer the root than
Class II affixes. This generalization is largely true, though it has been regularly pointed out since
Aronoff (1976) that it is not entirely true. Fabb (1988) has argued that even if it is true, the Level
Ordering Hypothesis is not sufficient to explain affix ordering in its entirety, and that alternative
conceptions which do give reasonably broad coverage can also handle the Level Ordering phenomena.
Lexical Phonology is generally associated with Level Ordering (though a number of lexical
phonologists have distanced themselves from it; cf. Booij and Rubach 1987). However, the leadi ideas of the model do not actually require Level Ordering. The main thrust of Kiparsky's theory is to
emphasize the traditional distinction between morphophonemic alternations and automatic
alternations. The morphophonemic alternations are generally mappings from sets of phonemes into
sets of phonemes (Structure Preservation), apply in contexts which are not defined in purely
phonological terms, often have lexical exceptions, can be ‘cancelled’ by native speakers (e.g. in loan
phonology), and generally apply only within words. The automatic alternations are generally
allophonic (non-Structure Preserving), speakers are generally not aware of them, they apply to
monomorphemic forms, and they often apply across words. Kiparsky argued that morphophonemic
alternations are actually triggered by morphological operations of affixation. As an affix is added (or a
cycle of affixation with a level is completed), the battery of lexical phonological rules applies. This
gives rise to various types of cyclic effect, and accounts for a good many of the properties of the two
types of rule.
here for download the materials
1. Handbook (An Introduction to English Morphology) DOWNLOAD
2. Lecturing Material (Introduction) DOWNLOAD
3. SAP for English Morphology TBI grade 4 DOWNLOAD
Senin, 22 Februari 2016
CCU: Education in British and Australia
Cross Culture Understanding about Educatin in British and Australia
A.
British
The education system in the UK is divided into four
main parts, primary education, secondary education, further education and
higher education. Children in the UK have to legally attend primary and
secondary education which runs from about 5 years old until the student is 16
years old.
1.
Primary Education
Primary or elementary education
is the first years of formal, structured education that occurs during childhood.
In most Western countries, it is compulsory for children to receive primary
education (though in many jurisdictions it is permissible for parents to
provide it).
Primary education generally begins when
children are four to seven years of age. The division between primary and
secondary education is somewhat arbitrary, but it generally occurs at about
twelve years of age ( adolescence ); some educational systems have separate
middle schools for that period. Primary and secondary education together are
sometimes (in particular, in Canada and the United States ) referred to as
" K-12 " education, (K is for kindergarten, 12 is
for twelfth grade).
Typically, primary education is provided in
schools , where (in the absence of parental movement or other intervening
factors) the child will stay, in steadily advancing classes, until they
complete it and move on to secondary schooling. Children are usually placed in
classes with one teacher who will be primarily responsible for their education
and welfare for that year. This teacher may be assisted to varying degrees by
specialist teachers in certain subject areas, often music or physical education.
The continuity with a single teacher and the opportunity to build up a close
relationship with the class is a notable feature of the primary education
system. Over the past few decades, schools have been testing various
arrangements which break from the one-teacher, one-class mold.
The major goals of primary education are
achieving basic literacy and numeracy amongst all their students, as well as
establishing foundations in science, geography, history and other social
sciences . The relative priority of various areas, and the methods used to
teach them, are an area of considerable political debate.
Traditionally, various forms of corporal
punishment were an integral part of early education in the UK. This practice
has now been outlawed in the UK.
KINDERGARTEN
The German expression kindergarten usually
refers to the first level of official education , according to the K-12
educational system. Kindergarten is usually administered in an elementary
school .
The equivalent in England and Wales is
reception . The Australian equivalent of this is the preparatory grade
(commonly called 'grade prep' or 'prep'), which is the year before the first
grade. In the state of New South Wales , however, it is called kindergarten. At
least in Victoria , kindergarten (distinct from grade prep) is a form of, and
used interchangeably with, pre-school .
The first kindergarten was opened in 1837 in
Bad Blankenburg , Germany by Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel .
The first kindergarten in the United States was
established by Margarethe (Margaretta) Meyer Schurz (wife of activist/statesman
Carl Schurz ), in Watertown, Dodge County, Wisconsin .
Youngsters , usually aged 4-6 attend
kindergarten to learn the finer points of meeting friends (and enemies),
professional authority (in the form of a teacher ), playtime , naptime ,
drawing , music , sometimes the basics of reading and writing , and various
other activities. For children who previously have spent most of their time at
home, kindergarten often serves the purpose of training them to be apart from
their parents without anxiety.
The youngster continues to Grade 1 after
kindergarten.
The actual word "kindergarten", as
one may guess, translates to "children's garden". Many private
businesses in the USA name their day-care businesses 'Kindergarten' or
'Kindergarden'. Kindergarten establishment (day-care) in Germany are for
pre-school children of all ages and are often run by churches, city or town
administrations. Kindergartens (German plural Kindergärten ) in Germany are not
a part of the actual school system, such as in the USA.
Kindergartens often last only for half a day
(morning or afternoon), though in many locations there are full-day
kindergartens.
ELEMENTARY
SCHOOL
The elementary school consists of the first
seven years of school, that is, grades 1 through 5 or 6, as well as kindergarten , a
preliminary year of school before grade 1 (known in England and Wales as '
Reception '). Originally, however, it was studied after primary school in the
19th century, (some schools that have only the youngest students are called
primary schools to this day). Also known as grammar school in the United States
it is a major segment of compulsory education. Until the latter third of the
20th century, however, grammar school (or elementary school) was grades 1
through 8. After grammar school, one usually attends high school . (In many
districts, grades 5-8 or 5-9 were called " middle school ", or
further separated into " intermediate school ", "middle
school", and/or " junior high school ".)
2.
Secondary Education
Secondary education , or secondary school , is
a period of education which follows directly after primary education (such as
intermediate school or elementary school ), and
which may be followed by tertiary or "post-secondary" education. The
purpose of a secondary education can be to prepare for either higher education or
vocational training . The exact boundary between primary and secondary
education varies from country to country and even within them, but is generally
around the seventh to the tenth year of education, with middle school covering
any gaps. Secondary education occurs mainly during the teenage years. Primary
and secondary education together are sometimes (in particular, in Canada and
the United States ) referred to as " K-12 " education, ( K is for kindergarten , 12 is
for twelfth grade).
GRAMMAR
SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM
In education in the United Kingdom , a grammar
school is a secondary school attended by pupils aged 11 to 18 to which entry is
controlled by means of an academically selective process consisting, largely or
exclusively, of a written examination . After leaving a grammar school, as with
any other secondary school, a student may go into further education at a
college or university .
The examination is called the eleven plus .
Partly due to the failure to fully implement the tri-partite system prescribed
by the 1944 Education Act, the examination came to be seen as delivering a
pass/fail result with the academically selected pupils passing and attending
grammar schools and the remaining pupils being deemed to have failed and being
consigned to the poorly funded schools euphemistically designated Secondary
Modern Schools .
This arrangement proved politically
unsustainable, and, over the period 1960 to 1975, non-selective
("comprehensive") education was instituted across a substantial
majority of the country. The eleven plus examination had been championed by the
educational psychologist Cyril Burt and the uncovering of his fraudulent
research played a minor part in accelerating this process.
To understand grammar schools in the UK, some
history is needed. After World War II , the government reorganised the
secondary schools into two basic types. Secondary moderns were intended for
children who would be going into a trade and concentrated on the basics plus
practical skills; grammar schools were intended for children who would be going
on to higher education and
concentrated on the classics, science, etc. This system lasted until the 1960s,
at which point changes in the political climate led to the general acceptance
that this was a discriminatory system which was not getting the best out of all
children. This was partly because some authorities tended to prioritise their
budgets on the grammar schools, damaging the education prospects of children
attending secondary moderns.
The decision was taken to switch to a single
type of school designed to give every child a complete education. That is why
this new type of school is called a comprehensive school. However the timetable
of the changeover was left to the local authorities, some of whom were very
resistant to the whole idea and thus dragged their feet for as long as
possible. The result is that there is now a mixture. Most authorities run a
proper comprehensive system, a few run essentially the old system of secondary
moderns and grammar schools (except the secondary moderns are now called
"comprehensives"). Some run comprehensive schools along side one or
two remaining grammar schools.
The Labour government that came to power in
1997 instituted measures that allowed parents to force a local referendum on
whether to abolish grammar schools in their area. The form of this referendum
depends on whether there is still a full two-tier system running, in which case
all parents with children at primary schools in the area are eligible to vote,
or whether there are only a few grammar schools in the area, in which case only
those parents with children at primaries that regularly send children to the
grammar school are eligible. By 2003, only a few referenda had taken place and
none of these had delivered the requisite majority for conversion.
The debate over selective education has been
widened by other measures introduced by the Labour government, allowing schools
to select a portion of their intake by "aptitude" for a specific
subject. There are many who think that selection allows children to receive the
form of education best suited for their abilities, while "one-size-fits-all"
comprehensives fail everybody equally. One of the greatest attacks on the
comprehensive system is that it leads, in essence, to selection on the grounds
of wealth as the good schools are generally located in areas with expensive
housing, so children from poor areas are denied the possibility of attending
them. Conversely, there are many who think that the selection of children at 11
divides them into "successes" and "failures" at that age,
and is therefore wrong. The current Labour government, from the party that
originally championed comprehensive education, appears to favour the first of
these groups, and their introduction of local referenda on grammar schools has
been attacked by opponents of selective education as an unworkable system
designed to give the semblance of choice while maintaining the status quo.
Private schools generally give the same sort of
education as grammar schools, but there are exceptions; Gordonstoun for one. In
areas where the local authority provides a comprehensive education – which some
parents don't like for various reasons – independent schools are particularly
common.
3.
Further Education
When students reach the age of 16 and have
completed their GCSE's or General Certificate of Secondary Education they have
a few options to choose from:
·
Find
work
If students opt for carrying on with their
education this will take two forms, either by pursuing further academic
qualifications or by following a more vocational pathway.
Academic
Qualifications
Most schools in the UK have what is called a
"6th Form" for students to enter after they have taken their GCSE's.
As an alternative, there are many "6th Form Colleges" that will offer
the same courses from students at schools that do not have a 6th form. Here
students typically study A-levels, further academic qualifications required of
students before they enter higher education and a degree program.
A-levels, like GCSE's, follow a two-year
program and there are two components to them, full A-levels and half AS-levels.
Generally A-levels comprise of 6 modules, and an AS-level 3 modules.
Students will generally take between two to three A-levels, but
depending on your academic ability and drive you may take more. Students at
independent schools may take anywhere up to 5 A-levels.
Vocational Qualifications
For students who are not so academically
minded, they still have the option to further their education by studying a
vocational course that will provide them with a more hands on experience and
education.
4.
Higher Education
Higher education is education provided by
universities and other institutions that award academic degrees, such as university colleges, and liberal arts
colleges .
Higher education includes both the teaching and
the research activities of universities, and within the realm of teaching, it
includes both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary
education ) and the graduate (or
postgraduate ) level (sometimes referred to as quaternary education). Higher
education differs from other forms of post-secondary education such as
vocational education . However, most professional education is included within
higher education, and many postgraduate qualifications are strongly
vocationally or professionally oriented, for example in disciplines such as law
and medicine.
The UK has a vast variety of higher education
opportunities to offer students with over 100 universities offering various
degree programs for students from the UK and around the world. In the UK about
one-third of all students go on to some form of higher education and this
number is well over 50% for students from Scotland. This makes competition for
places very fierce and so it is advised to apply early for courses.
In the UK most undergraduate degree programs
take three years to finish; however, the “sandwich course” is increasing in
popularity, which is four years and involves one year in the work place
(normally in your third year). In Scotland the courses are four years in length
for undergraduate programs.
For graduate or masters programs they are
generally shorter in length and undertaken after graduation of your
undergraduate program. Some professional degrees like medicine, veterinary, law
etc. have longer programs that can be as much as five years.
From 2007, universities in the UK are allowed
to charge students from the UK up to £3,070 per year (depending on the school
and location). For students from the EU, you will also only have the pay the
same fees as students from the UK, but international students from the rest of
the world will have to pay the full school fees which will vary depending on
the school. These fees for international students can range anywhere from
£4,000 per year right up to £18,000 per year or more.
Choosing the right school is dependent on a large number of
factors such as:
·
Location
of the school?
·
How
much does it cost?
·
Size
of the school?
·
Access
to home comforts? Place of worship, home foods?
·
Courses
available?
PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN THE UK
A public school, in common British usage, is a
school which is usually prestigious and historic, which charges fees, does not
arbitrarily restrict admissions, and is financed by bodies other than the
state, commonly as a private charitable trust. Often but not always they are
boarding schools. Confusingly to a non-native English speaker a public school
is actually a private school! In British usage, a government-run school (which
would be called a 'public school' in other areas, such as the United States )
is called a state school.
Many of the independent schools in the UK do
not refer to themselves as public schools . Many choose to use the term
independent school. In part this is due to a sense that some 'minor' public
schools have many of the social associations and traditions of public schools
but without the quality of teaching and extracurricular activities.
The term 'public' (first adopted by Eton)
historically refers to the fact that the school was open to the paying public,
as opposed to, a religious school that was only open to members of a certain
church, and in contrast to private education at home (usually only practical
for the very wealthy who could afford tutors).
Public schools played an important role in the
development of the Victorian social elite. Under a number of forward-looking
headmasters leading public schools developed a curriculum based heavily on
classics and physical activity for boys and young men of the upper and upper
middle classes. They were schools for the gentlemanly elite of Victorian
politics, armed forces and colonial government. Often successful businessmen
would send their sons to public school as a mark of participation in the elite
(it was Martin Wiener's opposition to this tendency which inspired his 1981
polemic "English Culture and the Decline of the Industrial Spirit:
1850-1980", which became a huge influence on the Thatcher government's
opposition to old-school gentlemanly Toryism and, by default, a key reason for
the recent upsurge of privately-educated pop singers in the UK).
Public schools often relied heavily on the
maintenance of discipline by older boys, both to reduce staffing costs and as
preparation for military or public service.
While under the best circumstances the
Victorian public schools were superb examples of education, the reliance on
corporal punishment and the prefect system could also make them awful. The
classics-based curriculum was criticised for not providing skills in sciences
or engineering.
The public school system influenced the school
systems of the British empire to an extent. Recognisably 'public' schools can
be found in many Commonwealth countries.
Today most public schools are highly selective
on academic grounds, as well as financial grounds (ability to pay high fees)
and social grounds (often a family connection to the school is very desirable
in admissions).
The
costs for a normal education in the United Kingdom are as follows:
·Primary: No Charge
·Secondary: No Charge
·Further (Secondary) Education in either a sixth form or college: No
Charge if under 19 in that particular academic year or on a low income.
·Higher / Tertiary Education (University): A tuition fee per year
(varies from £1,000 to £9,000).
Primary and Secondary education can also be
charged for, if a fee-paying (public) school is attended by the child in question.
B.
Australia
The educational structure in Australia follows
a three tier model that includes primary
education (primary
schools), followed by secondary education (secondary schools/high schools) and tertiary
education (universities
and/or Vocational Education and Training).
1.
Primary Education
Years 1-7
Primary education starts at
six years of age. Students will usually have one teacher for most of the school
day and specialist teachers for subjects such as music, art, drama and
religious studies.
The primary school curriculum
integrates skills, knowledge and understanding in eight learning areas:
a.
English/Literacy
b.
Mathematics/Numeracy
c.
Science
d.
Technology and Enterprise
e.
Arts
f.
Society and Environment
g.
Health and Physical Education
h.
Languages other than English (LOTE)
2.
Secondary Education
Lower Secondary School: Years 8-10
Students focus on
the same eight learning areas as Primary students, but with greater diversity
in electives and subject choice.
Upper Secondary School: Years 11-12
Your child can
elect to study subjects which will prepare them for future study or their
chosen career. Specific subject areas are taught by teachers with specialist
qualifications.
Western
Australia’s Year 12 qualification is known as the Western Australian
Certificate of Education (WACE). Your child can opt to sit for the Tertiary
Entrance Examination (TEE). Their Tertiary Entrance Ranking (TER) is based upon
school assessment and their TEE results. Your child’s TER score can be used to
establish their eligibility for universities and colleges both in Australia and
overseas.
3.
Teritary Education
Tertiary education in Australia consists
of both government and private institutions. A higher education provider is a
body that is established or recognised by or under the law of the Australian
Government, a State, The Department of Education, Employment and work place
Relation.
There are 43 universities in Australia: 40
public universities, two international universities, and one private
university.
Allocation
of responsibilities
Decision-making, regulation and governance for
higher education are shared among the Australian Government, the State and
Territory Governments and the institutions themselves. Some aspects of higher
education are the responsibility of States and Territories. In particular, most
universities are established or recognised under State and Territory
legislation. States and Territories are also responsible for accrediting
non-self-accrediting higher education providers.
Funding
The Australian Government has the primary
responsibility for public funding of higher education. The Higher Education Support Act
2003 sets out the details of Australian Government
funding and its associated legislative requirements. Australian Government
funding support for higher education is provided largely through:
·
the Commonwealth Grant Scheme which provides for a specified number of Commonwealth supported places each year
·
the Higher Education Loan
Programme (HELP) arrangements providing financial assistance to students
·
a
range of grants for specific purposes including quality, learning and teaching,
research and research training programmes.
The Department of Education is the Australian government department with
responsibility for administering this funding, and for developing and
administering higher education policy and programs.
Universities
In Australia, universities are self-accrediting
institutions and each university has its own establishment legislation
(generally State and Territory legislation) and receive the vast majority of
their public funding from the Australian Government, through the Higher Education Support Act
2003. The Australian National
University, the Australian Film, Television
and Radio School and the Australian Maritime College are established under Commonwealth legislation.
The Australian Catholic
University is established under corporations law. It has
establishment Acts in New South Wales and Victoria. Many private providers are
also established under corporations law. As self-accrediting institutions,
Australia’s universities have a reasonably high level of autonomy to operate
within the legislative requirements associated with their Australian Government
funding.[1]
Australian universities are represented through
the national universities' lobbying body Universities Australia (previously called Australian Vice-Chancellors'
Committee). Eight universities in the list have formed a group in recognition
of their recognized status and history, known as the ‘Group of Eight’ or
‘Go8’. Other university networks of have been formed among those of less
prominence (e.g., the Australian Technology Network and the Innovative Research
Universities). Academic standing and achievements vary
across these groups and student entry standards also vary with the Go8
universities having the highest standing in both categories.
Technical
and further education and registered training organisation
The various state-administered institutes of Technical and Further
Education (TAFE) across the country are the major
providers of vocational education and training (VET) in Australia. TAFE institutions generally
offer short courses, Certificates I, II, III, and IV, Diplomas, and Advanced
Diplomas in a wide range of vocational topics. They also sometimes offer Higher
Education courses, especially in Victoria.
In addition to TAFE Institutes there are many Registered Training
Organisations (RTOs)
which are privately operated. In Victoria alone there are approximately 1100. They
include:
·
commercial
training providers,
·
the
training department of manufacturing or service enterprises,
·
the
training function of employer or employee organizations in a particular
industry,
·
Group
Training Companies,
·
community
learning centers and neighborhood houses,
·
secondary
colleges providing VET programs.
In size these RTOs vary from single-person
operations delivering training and assessment in a narrow specialization, to
large organizations offering a wide range of programs. Many of them receive
government funding to deliver programs to apprentices or
trainees, to disadvantaged groups, or in fields which governments see as
priority areas.
VET programs delivered by TAFE Institutes and
private RTOs are based on nationally registered qualifications, derived from
either endorsed sets of Competency Standards known as Training Packages, or from courses accredited by state/territory
government authorities. These qualifications are regularly reviewed and
updated. In specialised areas where no publicly owned qualifications exist, an
RTO may develop its own course and have it accredited as a privately owned
program, subject to the same rules as those that are publicly owned.
All trainers and assessors delivering VET
programs are required to hold a qualification known as the Certificate IV in Training and Assessment (TAA40104)or the more current TAE40110 (http://training.gov.au/Training/Details/TAE40110) or
demonstrate equivalent competency. They are also required to have relevant
vocational competencies, at least to the level being delivered or assessed. All
TAFE institutes and private RTOs are required to maintain compliance with a set
of national standards called the Australian Quality Training
Framework (AQTF), and this compliance is monitored by
regular internal and external audits.
Classification
of tertiary qualifications
In Australia, the classification of tertiary
qualifications is governed in part by the Australian Qualifications
Framework (AQF), which attempts to integrate into a
single classification all levels of tertiary education (both vocational and
higher education), from trade certificates to higher doctorates. However, as Australian universities largely
regulate their own courses, the primary usage of AQF is for vocational education. In
recent years there have been some informal moves towards standardization
between higher education institutions.
School education (Primary and
Secondary)
School education is similar
across all of Australia with only minor variations between states and
territories. School education (primary and secondary) is compulsory between the
ages of six and sixteen (Year 1 to Year 9 or 10). School education is 13 years
and divided into:
· Primary school - Runs for seven or eight years, starting at
Kindergarten/Preparatory through to Year 6 or 7.
· Secondary school - Runs for three or four years, from Years 7
to 10 or 8 to 10.
· Senior secondary school - Runs for two years, Years 11 and 12.
Tertiary education
Tertiary education includes
both higher education (including universities) and vocational education and
training (VET).
Most schools enforce a uniform or dress code,
although there are varying expectations. Children mainly bring their own recess
and lunch meals to school, while many also offer a canteen with moderately
priced food and drinks available.
The Australian school year runs from January to
December, with four school terms. The longest holiday is over the Christmas
period (the Australian summer). Most educational institutions close for at
least six weeks over the Christmas holidays. There are three other two-week school
holidays during the year, in April (Easter), July and October.
Schools can be classified according to sources
of funding and administrative structures. There are three such categories in
Australia:
1.
Government
schools (also known as public schools or state schools)
a.
Primary
school fees: AU$70 - AU$300 per year (voluntary)
b.
High
school fees: AU$250 - AU$800 per year (voluntary)
c.
Variety
of open, sports, performing arts, languages or academically selective schools
d.
Mainly
coeducational, some single sex
Government schools are run by their respective
state or territory government. They technically offer free education; however,
schools do ask parents to pay a voluntary contribution fee, plus school camps,
excursions and extracurricular activities require additional (voluntary)
funding.
Government high schools can be either open or
selective. Open government schools accept all students from their defined
catchments or feeder areas. Selective government schools have wider accepted
catchment areas and are considered more prestigious than open schools. They
only offer placements to the top performers in the Selective High Schools Test undertaken by students during Year 6.
These schools are intended to provide a more
academically stimulating and educationally enriched environment for students
who have been offered a placement. Likewise sport, performing art or language
high schools offer an enhanced learning environment within these categories.
2.
Catholic
schools
a.
Primary
school fees: AU$2000 to AU$3000 per year
b.
High
school fees: AU$3000 to AU$6000 per year
c.
Mainly
single sex, some coeducational
d.
Daily
mass is conducted and religion taught as a subject; however, Catholicism is not
the main focus, hence students of other religions also attend these schools
The Catholic school system receives substantial
funding from the federal government as Catholic schools are considered to be a
vital education system outside the public sector. Fees are compulsory, with
school camps, excursions and extracurricular activities as an additional cost.
The higher fees generally afford these schools a higher standard of school and
sporting facilities than most government schools.
A Catholic
school is a good choice if you are unable to afford a private school education
but would like to see your child offered more choices than what some open
government schools can offer. However, do research on the schools local to the
area in which you are moving to as some public schools have great reputations.
3.
Independent schools (known as private schools)
a.
Primary
school fees: AU$2000 to AU$2500 per year
b.
High
school fees: AU$12,000 and AU$20,000 per year
c.
Mainly
single sex, some coeducational
Private schools also receive government
funding; however, fees charged are much higher than those charged to attend
government or Catholic schools. As a result, private schools enjoy a
prestigious reputation with academic results, school grounds and facilities,
sporting and extra-curricular activity options considered to be amongst the
best in the country.
Private schools are competitively priced when
compared to schools in Japan, the United Kingdom, the United States, Taiwan,
Singapore and Hong Kong. A William M. Mercer survey of tuition fees charged by
secondary schools found that Sydney schools were less than one third the cost
of equivalent London and Tokyo schools, and more than 60% cheaper than New York
schools.
In other hand, there are some term about
cost of the instituions,
Boarding schools
a.
Boarding
and education fees: AU$30,000 to AU$40,000 per year
b.
Mix
of international, rural and interstate students
c.
Single
sex
There are approximately 170 boarding schools
around Australia, which are mainly private schools. Boarding schools in
Australia can be termed semi-boarding schools in the way they are part day
school and part boarding school. These schools take in day students as well as
full time boarders, and in some cases semi-boarders who go home on the
weekends.
Universities
a.
Undergraduate
course fees: AU$10,000 to AU$16,500 per year
b.
Graduate
course fees: AU$11,000 to AU$18,500 per year
c.
Course
duration ranges from three to four years for undergraduate courses and one or
more years for postgraduate courses
d.
Main
intake in February each year with a second intake in July. Application deadline
for February intake is November/December, earlier for more competitive courses
Australia has almost 40 public and Catholic
universities through which admission is primarily on the basis of academic achievement.
There is also a wide variety of specialist and private universities and
colleges. The ratio of international to local students in tertiary education in
Australia is the highest in the OECD countries.
Australian universities and colleges have an excellent reputation for
quality international education so it’s not surprising there are now more than
2.5 million former international students who have gone on to make a difference
after studying in Australia. With five of the 30 best cities in the world
for students based on student mix, affordability, quality of life, and employer
activity, studying in Australia is about the opportunity to live a unique
lifestyle, explore the natural wonders of its oceans and rainforests, enjoy
weather like home and the buzz of its cosmopolitan cities.
The most prestigious, wealthiest and oldest
universities in Australia are known as the Group of
Eight (Go8). They include:
a.
Australian
National University, Canberra
b.
University
of Melbourne
c.
University
of Queensland, Brisbane
d.
University
of New South Wales
e.
University
of Sydney
f.
Monash
University, Melbourne
g.
University
of Western Australia, Perth
h.
University
of Adelaide, Adelaide
Most students are Commonwealth supported, which
means that they are only required to pay a part of the cost of tuition, called
the "student contribution", while the Commonwealth pays the balance.
Students are then able to defer payment of their contribution as a Higher
Education Loan Programme (HELP) loan. Australian citizens and (with some
limitations) permanent residents are able to obtain interest free loans from
the government under the HELP loan programme.
In addition, qualified students may be entitled
to Youth Allowance or Austudy payments to assist them financially while they
are studying. These support payments are means and assets tested. Further
assistance is available in the form of scholarships.
Vocational Education and Training (VET)
a.
VET
fees and charges: AU$580 to AU$1200 per year
b.
Award
qualifications up to the level of advanced diploma
In Australia vocational education and training
is mostly post secondary and provided through the Vocational Education and
Training (VET) system by registered training organisations. This system
encompasses both public and private providers in a national training framework.
Technical and Further Education (TAFE)
institutions provide a wide range of predominantly vocational tertiary
education courses in Australia. Fields covered include hospitality, tourism,
construction, engineering, secretarial skills, visual arts, computer
programming and community work. TAFE colleges generally award qualifications up
to the level of advanced diploma. In many instances TAFE study can be used as
partial credit towards bachelor degree-level university programs.
Individual TAFE institutions (usually with many
campuses) are known as either colleges or institutes, depending on the state or
territory. TAFE colleges are owned, operated and financed by the various state
and territory governments. Students who enrol in these undergraduate degree
courses at TAFE are required to pay full fees and are not entitled to
Commonwealth Government supported student fee loans.
Cultural differences in teaching and learning styles
In the classroom here in Australia , the local students are very
critical and they seem to tread their lecturers very casually. The lecturers
don’t seem to mind. If they dissagree with the lecturers , they just tell him
or her directly. If they are feeling too tired or bored they ask the lecturer
if they can read the material later. Wow ! in Indonesia we would never do that !
Another thing i’ve noticed is that Indonesians are not used to
critycal thinking and responding to every issue in the classroom. Here, we are
expected to be critycal and not passive. If we are passive the lecturer or one
of our friend will ask us what we think.
Also the classroom situation is very casual. Its more like beeing
in coffe shop then a classroom as the students can bring food and drink into
the classroom. I still fine that funny, as this would never happen in Indonesia.
Several years ago, we could see
sharp differences between teaching in Indonesia and teaching in the West. In
Indoneia, the teacher was “king” and the only resource for students. students
were expected to listen carefully and it was considered impolite to dissagree
with a teacher’s opinion. Now days, teachers are not the only resource
available to students and most teachers encourage discussion in the classroom.
There
are several reasons for this. First, globalization has meant that information
is more easily accesible. Secound, there has been a gradual increas in the
number of indonesian graduating on offer seas universities. These graduate,
expecially the one involved in teaching, try to implement what they have learnt
on their return to Indonesia.
Students and The Pub
In Australia a center of social activity is often the bar (that is
the pub). The words ‘pub’ and ‘bar’ might have negative connotation, but in
Australia these arevthe place where friends meet and new friends are made. Not
only do people go to the uni bar for a drink, but also to sosialize, listen to
nlive music, play pool or video games and sometimes to study! Most uni bars
have an outdoor area where people can enjoy their lunch in the sun. So if you
ever come to Australia, don’t be shy...check out the bar!
Information about Australian school
1.
Students
in Australian schools are provided with the text books they need. Their school
library lends them the textbook and they have enough for all students. Copying
books is not allowed. Students only have to buy their own exercise books (buku
tulis) for writing in.
2.
There
are usually no religious lessons in Australian scholls except in religious
schools. Even in these schools, students can choose whether they want follow
these lessons or not.
3.
Students
who misbehave, for example wagging (bolos) are given detention. This
means students have to do schoolwork at recess and lunchtime, in a room and
with teacher supervision. Susupension from school for a period of time is also
a form discipline used in Australian schools.
4.
Most
high school in Australian provides lockers for students. Students can put their
books and personal belongings in them. This facility is optional and is not
compulsory. At Kormilda College, for example, the facility is free. But at
Darwin High School students have to pay $10 rental for a year if they want to
use the locker.
5.
After
school holidays, students generally start back on the second day of the term,
which is usually on a Tuesday. Teachers, on the other hand, have to start work
on the Monday. Teachers usually use the first day to prepare and organize
maters related to their teaching. Sometimes schools conduct Professional
Development workshops for teacher on that particular day. So, when the school
starts the following day, everything is ready. There’s no excuse for teachers
who are not ready to teach.
6.
Every
Australian citizen has the opportunity to study at university whether they have
enough money or not. They can pay their university tuition fees up front or,
if they can’t afford it, they can ‘borrow’ their tuition fees. When they
finish their studies and get a job, and when their salary exceeds a certain
amount, then the government will regularly deduct money from their salary to
repay their tuition fees.
